Saffron

Saffron, often known as the “saffron crocus,” is a spice that is made from the flower of the Crocus sativus plant. The vibrant red stigma and styles, sometimes known as “threads,” are harvested and dried for use primarily as food flavor and coloring.

Saffron is thought to have originated in Iran, while there are still some questions about where it came from Yet, Mesopotamia and Greece have also been mentioned as potential locations for the origin of this plant.

The saffron crocus gradually spread across much of Eurasia before being introduced to regions of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.

The phytochemicals picrocrocin and safranal are responsible for Saffron’s flavor and iodoform- or hay-like aroma. Moreover, it includes the carotenoid pigment crocin, which gives textiles and dishes a deep golden-yellow tint. It has been traded and utilized for thousands of years, as indicated by a botanical treatise written by an Assyrian author in the 7th century BC.

90% of the world’s saffron production in the twenty-first century comes from Iran. Saffron has long been the most expensive spice in the world by weight, costing at least US$5,000 per kg.

Table of Contents

Etymology

The origin of the English term “saffron” is somewhat obscure. It might have its roots in the Old French word safran from the 12th century, which is derived from the Latin word safranum, from the Arabic (زعفران), za’farn, from the Persian word zarparan, which means “gold strung” (implying either the golden stamens of the flower or the golden color it creates when used as flavor).

Species

Description

The domesticated saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, is a perennial plant with fall flowers that is not found in nature. It likely descended from the Crocus cartwrightianus, commonly known as “wild saffron”, an autumn-flowering species native to the eastern Mediterranean and maybe Central Asia.

Other potential sources include C. thomasii and C. pallasii. It slowly spread across most of Eurasia as a genetic monomorphic clone. It is a sterile triploid form, which implies that each specimen’s genetic makeup consists of three homologous sets of chromosomes; C. sativus has eight chromosomal bodies per set, for a total of 24. Because they are sterile, the C.

Sativus are unable to generate seeds that will germinate, therefore human intervention is required for reproduction. Groups of corms—underground, bulb-like, starch-storing organs—must be dug up, separated, and replanted.

A corm can produce up to ten “cormlets” by vegetative division during the course of one season, each of which can develop into a new plant the following year. The compact corms are small, brown globules that can grow up to 5 cm (2 in) in diameter, have a flat base, and are covered in what is known as a “corm tunic”—a dense mat of parallel fibers.

Moreover, corms have thin, net-like vertical fibers that extend up to 5 cm (2 in) above the plant’s neck.

The plant produces 5–11 cataphylls, which are white, non–photosynthetic leaves. 5 to 11 genuine leaves are covered and shielded by these membrane-like structures as they bud and expand on the crocus flower.

The latter are thin, straight, blade-like green leaves that are 1-3 mm (1.32-1.8 in) in diameter and either enlarge (“hysteranthous”) after the flowers open or do so concurrently with their flowering (“synanthous”).

Some believe that C. sativus cataphylls appear before blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growth season. Its bracteoles, or specialized leaves, which emerge from the flower stalks and are referred to as pedicels, are found on its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures.

The plant aestivates in the spring and then sends up its genuine leaves, which can grow to be up to 40 cm (16 in) long. Its wonderfully colored blossoms, which range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve, only begin to form in October, after the majority of other flowering plants have produced their seeds. The blossoms have a fragrant sweetness, like honey.

The plants have up to four flowers and are 20–30 cm (8–12 in) tall when they flower. Each flower has a three-pronged style that is 25–30 mm (1–1–3–16 in) long. The distal end of a carpel, which is where each prong ends, is a vibrant crimson stigma.

Cultivation

Unknown in the wild, the saffron crocus is most likely descended from Crocus cartwrightianus. It is a triploid that is “self-incompatible” and male sterile; it goes through aberrant meiosis and is therefore unable to reproduce sexually on its own; all vegetative multiplication is done manually by “dividing and setting” a starter clone, or by interspecific hybridization.

Crocus sativus flourishes in similar temperatures where hot and dry summer breezes wash semi-arid plains, including the Mediterranean maquis, an ecotype that superficially resembles the North American chaparral. Despite this, it can endure harsh winters, enduring frosts as low as 10 °C (14 °F) and brief snowfalls.According to some reports, saffron can withstand air temperatures between -22 and 40 °C. If produced outside of humid areas, such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages 1,000-1,500 mm (40-60 in), irrigation is necessary.

Saffron-growing locations in Greece and Spain are much drier than the primary cultivating Iranian regions. This is made possible by the timing of the region’s wet seasons; ideal conditions are for heavy spring rains and dry summers.

Saffron harvests are increased by rain just before flowering; rainy or cold weather during flowering encourages illness and lowers yields. Crops are harmed by prolonged dampness and heat, and corms are dug up by rabbits, rodents, and birds, who also inflict damage.

Other dangers include nematodes, leaf rusts, and corm rot. Yet, the inoculation of Bacillus subtilis may assist producers in some way by accelerating corm growth and boosting stigma biomass production.

The plants grow best in full sunlight; they do badly in shaded environments. The best fields are those that slope toward the sun (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere).

In the Northern Hemisphere, planting occurs primarily in June; corms are inserted 7–15 cm (3-6 in) deep; roots, stems, and leaves can form between October and February.

Critical elements in affecting yields are planting depth, corm spacing, and climate. Although they produce fewer flower buds and daughter corms, mother corms that are planted deeper produce saffron that is of greater quality.

Italian farmers plant 15 cm (6 in) deep and space their rows 3-4 cm (1+1 in) apart to maximize thread yield; they plant 8–10 cm (3–4 in) deep to maximize blossom and corm production. Growers from Greece, Morocco, and Spain use certain depths and spacings that are appropriate for their environments.

Clay-calcareous soils with a high organic content that are friable, loose, low density, well-watered, and well-drained are preferred by C. sativus. Good drainage is encouraged by conventional raised beds.

Historically, manure application rates of 20–30 tonnes per hectare (9–13 short tons per acre) were used to increase soil organic content.

Corms were then planted after which no more manure was applied. The corms begin to bloom in early fall after a period of hibernation during the summer that saw them put up their slender leaves.

They only blossom in the middle of fall. Harvests must be completed swiftly because flowers quickly wilt throughout the day after blooming at dawn. Within a span of one to two weeks, all plants blossom. After extraction, stigmas are promptly dried and, ideally, packed in airtight containers.

Harvesting

Due to labor-intensive harvesting techniques that need approximately 440,000 hand-picked saffron stigmas per kilogram (200,000 stigmas/lb), or 150,000 crocus flowers per kilogram (70,000 flowers/lb), saffron’s high retail value is maintained on global markets. The labor required to pluck 150,000 flowers takes 40 hours.

Average yield of dried spice from fresh saffron is only 13 g/kg (0.2 oz/lb); one freshly picked crocus flower yields 30 mg of fresh spice or 7 mg dried; approximately 150 flowers yield 1 g (1.32 oz) of dry saffron threads; and 450 g (1 lb) of flowers are required to produce 12 g (7.16 oz) of dried saffron.

Spice

Phytochemistry and sensory properties

The majority of the 28 volatile and aroma-producing chemicals in saffron are ketones and aldehydes. Safranal, which is primarily responsible for the saffron scent, 4-ketoisophorone, and dihydrooxophorone are its key aroma-active constituents.

Moreover, saffron includes nonvolatile phytochemicals, the most biologically active of which are crocetin and its glycoside crocein, as well as the carotenoids zeaxanthin, lycopene, and other – and -carotenes.

Crocetin is absorbed more quickly than the other carotenoids because it is smaller and more water-soluble.

Saffron’s predominant source of -crocin is responsible for its yellow-orange color. The systematic name for this crocin, trans-crocetin di-(-D-gentiobiosyl) ester, according to the IUPAC is 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This indicates that the digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin is what gives saffron its distinctive scent.

The hydrophilic carotenoids known as crocins are a group of crocetin mono- or diglycosyl polyene esters. Crocetin is a hydrophobic, oil-soluble conjugated polyene dicarboxylic acid. A substance that is also water soluble is produced when crocetin is esterified with two sugars called gentiobioses.

The resulting carotenoid pigment, known as -crocin, may account for more than 10% of the mass of dry saffron. The two esterified gentiobioses in -crocin make it perfect for coloring non-fatty, water-based meals like rice dishes.

The strong flavor of saffron is due to the bitter glucoside picrocrocin. Safranal, an aldehyde sub-molecule with the systematic name 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carbaldehyde, and a carbohydrate are combined to generate picrocrocin, which has the chemical formula C 16H 26O 7 and systematic name 4-(-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carbaldehyde.

It can make up to 4% of dry saffron and has insecticidal and pesticidal qualities. Picrocrocin, the glycoside of the terpene aldehyde safranal, is a shortened form of the carotenoid zeaxanthin that is formed through oxidative cleavage. Following harvest, when saffron is dried, heat and enzymatic activity break picrocrocin to produce D-glucose and a free safranal molecule.

The volatile oil safranal is mostly responsible for the saffron’s characteristic scent. Safranal, which makes up as much as 70% of the volatile portion in dry saffron, is less bitter than picrocrocin.

The smell of 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, a second component of the saffron aroma, has been compared to that of dried hay. Despite being present in lower concentrations than safranal, chemists found that this is the most potent component of saffron’s aroma.

Dried saffron is quite sensitive to pH changes and degrades chemically very quickly in the presence of light and oxidizing substances. In order to reduce interaction with atmospheric oxygen, it must be kept in airtight containers. Saffron can withstand heat a little better.

Grades and ISO 3632 categories

Not all saffron is the same strength and quality. The amount of style chosen and the red stigma are two aspects that affect strength. The saffron’s age is another consideration. Gram for gram, saffron that has more style included is weaker since the red stigmas are where the majority of the color and flavor are concentrated.

According to the proportions of red stigma and yellow styles that each batch of saffron includes, which comes from Iran, Spain, and Kashmir, is divided into different classes.

Iranian saffron comes in three different strength levels: sargol (red stigma tips exclusively, strongest grade), pushal or pushali (red stigmas with some yellow style, lower strength), and “bunch” saffron (red stigmas plus large amount of yellow style, presented in a tiny bundle like a miniature wheatsheaf) both konge (yellow style only, claimed to have aroma but with very little, if any, colouring potential).

The different grades of Spanish saffron are coupé (the highest grade, similar to Iranian sargol), mancha (similar to Iranian pushal), Rio, Standard, and Sierra, in descending order of strength. In the Spanish categorization, the word “mancha” can refer to either a very high quality saffron farmed in Spain from a particular geographic origin or a general grade of saffron.

The PDO protected status of authentic La Mancha saffron from Spain is indicated on the product packaging. Since they believed that imports of Iranian saffron that had been repackaged in Spain and sold as “Spanish Mancha saffron” were harming the reputation of the real La Mancha brand, Spanish growers lobbied hard for Protected Status. Similar circumstances occurred in Kashmir, where local saffron and saffron imported from Iran were combined and marketed under the name “Kashmir brand” for a higher price.

Saffron in Kashmir is primarily divided into the mongra (stigma alone) and lachha categories (stigmas attached with parts of the style). Nations that produce less saffron may only produce one grade and lack specialized terminology for multiple grades.

By focusing on quality and only selling the highest-grade saffron available, artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have been able to offset their higher labor costs for saffron harvesting.

Saffron can be classified under the international standard ISO 3632 following laboratory measurements of the crocin (responsible for saffron’s color), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance or aroma) content.

These descriptors go beyond those based on how the saffron is chosen. However frequently there is no obvious grading information on the product packaging, and only a small percentage of the easily accessible saffron in the UK is marked with an ISO category.

Customers find it challenging to compare costs and purchase saffron while making informed decisions due to the lack of information.

Determining the “floral waste content” and other extraneous matter, such as inorganic material (“ash”), are crucial under ISO 3632. The International Organization for Standardization, a coalition of national standards organizations, establishes grading guidelines.

Three classifications are established by ISO 3632, which only deals with saffron: III (poorest quality), II, and I. (finest quality). Category IV, which was formerly below category III, was also present.

The crocin and picrocrocin content of the spice, as determined by measures of particular spectrophotometric absorbance, is used to categorize samples. Safranal is handled slightly differently, and samples are required to yield a reading of 20–50 for all categories rather than specific threshold levels.

All across the world, accredited testing facilities use spectrophotometry reports to measure these data. Greater amounts of crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal suggest higher absorbances, which also imply more color potential and strength per gram.

The “coloring strength” of that saffron is measured by the absorbance value of the crocin. The color intensity of saffron can range from less than 80 (for all grade IV saffron) to 200 or more (for category I).

The world’s best samples, which are the hand-picked, most red-maroon stigma tips from the finest flowers, have coloring strengths above 250, making them more potent than category IV saffron by more than three times.

These ISO categories directly influence the market prices for various saffron varieties. Normally, ISO 3632 category I would include sargol and coupé saffron. Mancha and Pushal would likely be placed in category II. Many saffron package labels do not include the ISO 3632 category or the color strength (which is a gauge of the crocin content).

Yet, a lot of farmers, merchants, and buyers disagree with these lab test results.

Other people like a more comprehensive approach that involves evaluating batches of threads for their flavor, scent, pliability, and other characteristics in a manner akin to that used by skilled wine tasters. [46] Yet, ISO 3632 grade and color strength information enable customers to compare the quality of various saffron brands instantly without having to buy and try the spice.

Given the vast possible range of coloring intensities that various types of saffron can have, buyers can calculate a value for money based on price per unit of colouring strength rather than price per gram.

Adulteration

Despite attempts at quality control and standardization, saffron’s long history of adulteration continues into modern times, especially among the cheapest varieties.

A saffron dealer was executed under the Saffron Shoe Code. Typical methods are the incorporation of foreign substances such as beets, pomegranate fibres, red silk fibres, or the tasteless, odorless yellow stamens of saffron crocuses. Other methods added sticky substances such as honey or vegetable oil to saffron fibers to increase their weight.

Counterfeiting can also consist of mislabeling and selling mixtures of saffron of different qualities. For example, high-quality Kashmiri saffron is often sold mixed with cheaper imports from Iran. These blends were then marketed as pure cashmere he saffron, costing much of the income of cashmere producers.

Safflower is marketed as saffron. It’s a common alternative sometimes. The spice is reportedly forged using horsehair, corn silk, or scraps of paper. Tartrazine or Sunset Yellow is used to color fake saffron powder.

In recent years, saffron laced with the colored extract of the gardenia fruit has been discovered on the European market. Difficult to detect. A detection method using HPLC and mass spectrometry was developed to determine the presence of geniposide, a compound present in gardenia fruit but not saffron.

Types

Different cultivars of saffron crocuses are often geographically distributed and produce characteristically different thread types. Spanish varieties (not cultivars in the botanical sense), such as the trade names ‘Spanish Superior’ and ‘Cream’, are generally mild in color, taste and aroma.

They are graded according to government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly stronger than Spanish varieties. The Greek saffron produced in the city of Krokos is his PDO protected especially for its high quality color and strong flavor. In New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, America and other countries, there are various “boutique” plants for sale, some of which are organic.

In the United States, small quantities of Pennsylvania Dutch saffron, known for its “earthly” aroma, are sold.

Consumers may view certain breeds as “premium” quality. ‘Aquila’ saffron or Zafferano dell’Aquila has a high safranal and crocin content, a characteristic thread shape, a very pungent aroma and intense color. Only grown on his 8 hectares in the Navelli Valley in Abruzzo, Italy, near L’Aquila.

It was first introduced to Italy by the Dominican monks from Spain in the Inquisition. [when? It also contains unusually high levels of crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal.

Another is cashmere ‘Mongra’ or ‘Lacha’ saffron (Crocus sativus ‘Cashmirianus’), which is the most difficult to obtain by consumers [56]. Repeated droughts, epidemics and crop failures in Kashmir, coupled with Indian export bans, contribute to exorbitant foreign prices.

Kashmiri saffron can be recognized by its dark maroon purple hue, making him one of the darkest in the world. In 2020, saffron from the Kashmir Valley received a Geographical Indication from the Government of India.

World production

Almost all saffron grows in a belt that stretches from Spain in the west to Kashmir in the east. Iran accounts for about 45% of world production . Afghanistan and Spain are secondary producers, while the United Arab Emirates, Greece, India and Morocco are small producers.

According to the latest saffron trade statistics for 2019, Iran is the world’s largest saffron producer, supplying 430 tones out of a total of 450 tones of saffron produced worldwide, growing to 500 tones by 2020. expected to reach.

India produces only 22 tons of saffron per year. Other countries that produce saffron and are based on their share of global saffron production are Greece (7.2 tons), Afghanistan (6 tons), Morocco (2.6 tons), Spain (2.3 tons), Italy (1 tons), China ( 1 ton). , Azerbaijan (0.23 tons).

Trade

Wholesale and retail prices for saffron range from $1,100 to $11,000 per kg ($500 to $5,000 per pound). In Western countries, the average retail price in 1974 was $2,200 per kilo ($1,000 per pound) [10].

There are 150,000 to 440,000 threads per kilogram (70,000 to 200,000 threads/lb). Fresh saffron is characterized by bright purple color, light moisture, elasticity and low thread breakage.

Uses

Saffron has long been used in traditional medicine.[63][64] Saffron was also used as a textile dye, especially in China and India, and was also used in perfumery. It is used for religious purposes in India.

Consumption

The aroma of saffron is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with a grassy or hay-like aroma, but its taste has also been described as hay-like and sweet. It also gives the food a bright yellow-orange tint. Saffron is commonly used in Persian, Indian, European, and Arabic cuisine.

Sweets and liqueurs also often contain saffron. Saffron is used in a variety of dishes, such as Iranian jewelry rice and Khoresh, Italian Milanese risotto, Spanish paella, French bouillabaisse, and South Asian biryani with various meats.

One of the most appreciated uses of saffron is in the preparation of Golden Ham, a prized cured ham made with San Gimignano saffron. Common saffron substitutes include safflower (Carthamus tinctorius, often sold as “Portuguese saffron” or “açafrão”), annatto, and turmeric (Curcuma longa).

In medieval Europe, turmeric was also known as “Indian saffron” because of its yellow-orange color.

Nutrition

Dried saffron is 65rbohydrates, 6t, 11% protein (table) and 12% water. In one tablespoon (2 grams; a quantity much larger than is likely to be ingested in normal use) manganese is present as 29% of the Daily Value, while other micronutrients have negligible content (table).

Toxicity

Ingesting less than 1.5 g (1⁄16 oz) of saffron is not toxic for humans, but doses greater than 5 g (3⁄16 oz) can become increasingly toxic. Mild toxicity includes dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, whereas at higher doses there can be reduced platelet count and spontaneous bleeding.

Storage

Saffron will not spoil, but will lose flavour within six months if not stored in an airtight, cool and dark place. Freezer storage can maintain flavour for up to two years.

Research

Genes and transcription factors involved in the pathway for carotenoid synthesis responsible for the colour, flavor and aroma of saffron were under study in 2017.

Saffron constituents, such as crocin, crocetin, and safranal, were under preliminary research for their potential to affect mental depression and low mood.

Saffron has also been studied for its possible effect on cardiovascular risk factors, such as lipid profile, blood glucose, weight, eye health, and in erectile dysfunction, but there is no high-quality clinical evidence for such effects, as of 2020. Studies on saffron related to the therapeutic area of sleep have shown very encouraging results.

Saffron has also been found to have positive effects on the psychological effects of menopause in women.